Management of Gastroesophageal reflux disease in adult: Review article

Document Type : Review Article

Authors

1 Gastroenterohepatology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

2 Student Research Committee, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran

3 Department of Pharmacotherapy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

Abstract

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a very common disease. This review focuses on the management strategies for patients with this disease. We review the initial and maintenance therapy of GERD. We also review different management of recurrent and refractory GERD.

  1. Shaheen NJ, Hansen RA, Morgan DR, Gangarosa LM, Ringel Y, Thiny MT et al. The burden of gastrointestinal and liver diseases, 2006. Am J Gastroenterol 2006;101:2128–2138.
  2. Vakil N, van Zanten SV, Kahrilas P, Dent J, Jones R; Global Consensus Group. The Montreal definition and classification of gastroesophageal reflux disease: a global evidence-based consensus. Am J Gastroenterol 2006 ;101(8):1900-20.
  3. Fass R, Ofman JJ. Gastroesophageal reflux disease–should we adopt a new conceptual framework? Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97:1901–1909.
  4. Kaltenbach T, Crockett S, Gerson LB. Are lifestyle measures effective in patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease? An evidence-based approach. Arch Intern Med 2006;166(9):965-71.
  5. Aslam M, Slaughter JC, Goutte M, Garrett CG, Hagaman D, Vaezi MF. Nonlinear relationship between body mass index and esophageal acid exposure in the extraesophageal manifestations of reflux. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012 ;10(8):874-8.
  6. Cremonini F, Locke GR 3rd, Schleck CD, Zinsmeister AR, Talley NJ. Relationship between upper gastrointestinal symptoms and changes in body weight in a population-based cohort. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2006;18(11):987-94.
  7. Kjellin A, Ramel S, Rössner S, Thor K. Gastroesophageal reflux in obese patients is not reduced by weight reduction. Scand J Gastroenterol 1996 ;31(11):1047-51.
  8. Jacobson BC, Somers SC, Fuchs CS, Kelly CP, Camargo CA Jr. Body-mass index and symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux in women. N Engl J Med 2006 ;354(22):2340-8.
  9. Ness-Jensen E, Lindam A, Lagergren J, Hveem K. Weight loss and reduction in gastroesophageal reflux. A prospective population-based cohort study: the HUNT study. Am J Gastroenterol 2013;108(3):376-82.
  10. Eherer AJ, Netolitzky F, Högenauer C, Puschnig G, Hinterleitner TA, Scheidl S, et al. Positive effect of abdominal breathing exercise on gastroesophageal reflux disease: a randomized, controlled study. Am J Gastroenterol 2012;107(3):372-8.
  11. Ness-Jensen E, Lindam A, Lagergren J, Hveem K. Tobacco smoking cessation and improved gastroesophageal reflux: a prospective population-based cohort study: the HUNT study. Am J Gastroenterol 2014 ;109(2):171-7.
  12. Sontag SJ. The medical management of reflux esophagitis. Role of antacids and acid inhibition. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1990;19(3):683-712.
  13. Pettit M. Treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Pharm World Sci 2005;27:432-435.
  14. Orwoll ES. The milk-alkali syndrome: current concepts. Ann Intern Med 1982;97(2):242-8.
  15. Haram EM, Weberg R, Berstad A. Urinary excretion of aluminium after ingestion of sucralfate and an aluminium-containing antacid in man. Scand J Gastroenterol 1987;22(5):615-8.
  16. Shields HM. Rapid fall of serum phosphorus secondary to antacid therapy. Gastroenterology. 1978;75(6):1137-41.
  17. Richter JE. Review article: the management of heartburn in pregnancy. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005;22(9):749-57.
  18. Simon B, Ravelli GP, Goffin H. Sucralfate gel versus placebo in patients with non-erosive gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1996;10(3):441-6.
  19. Kaehny WD, Hegg AP, Alfrey AC. Gastrointestinal absorption of aluminum from aluminum-containing antacids. N Engl J Med 1977;296(24):1389-90.
  20. Rohof WO, Bennink RJ, Smout AJ, Thomas E, Boeckxstaens GE. An alginate-antacid formulation localizes to the acid pocket to reduce acid reflux in patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013;11(12):1585-91.
  21. Buts JP, Barudi C, Otte JB. Double-blind controlled study on the efficacy of sodium alginate (Gaviscon) in reducing gastroesophageal reflux assessed by 24 h continuous pH monitoring in infants and children. Eur J Pediatr 1987;146(2):156-8.
  22. Sweis R, Kaufman E, Anggiansah A, Wong T, Dettmar P, Fried M, et al. Post-prandial reflux suppression by a raft-forming alginate (Gaviscon Advance) compared to a simple antacid documented by magnetic resonance imaging and pH-impedance monitoring: mechanistic assessment in healthy volunteers and randomised, controlled, double-blind study in reflux patients. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2013;37(11):1093-102.
  23. Komazawa Y, Adachi K, Mihara T, Ono M, Kawamura A, Fujishiro H, et al. Tolerance to famotidine and ranitidine treatment after 14 days of administration in healthy subjects without Helicobacter pylori infection. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2003;18(6):678-82.
  24. Wolfe MM, Sachs G. Acid suppression: optimizing therapy for gastroduodenal ulcer healing, gastroesophageal reflux disease, and stress-related erosive syndrome. Gastroenterology 2000;118; 9-31.
  25. Kahrilas PJ. Gastroesophageal reflux disease. JAMA 1996 ;276(12):983-8.
  26. Sabesin SM, Berlin RG, Humphries TJ, Bradstreet DC, Walton-Bowen KL, Zaidi S. Famotidine relieves symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux disease and heals erosions and ulcerations. Results of a multicenter, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging study. USA Merck Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Study Group. Arch Intern Med 1991; 151(12):2394-400.
  27. Cloud ML, Offen WW, Robinson M. Nizatidine versus placebo in gastroesophageal reflux disease: a 12-week, multicenter, randomized, double-blind study. Am J Gastroenterol 1991;86(12):1735-42.
  28. Khan M, Santana J, Donnellan C, et al. Medical treatments in the short term management of reflux oesophagitis.Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007;(2):CD003244.
  29. Reynolds JC. The clinical importance of drug interactions with antiulcer therapy. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1990;12:S54-63.
  30. McCarthy DM. Ranitidine or cimetidine. Ann Intern Med. 1983;99(4):551-3.
  31. Nakano T, Kuroiwa T, Tsumita Y, Kaneko Y, Hiromura K, Ueki K, et al. Aplastic anemia associated with initiation of nizatidine therapy in a hemodialysis patient. Clin Exp Nephrol 2004;8(2):160-2.
  32. Takami N, Yamamoto Y, Matsuo H, Ohtani H, Sawada Y. Agranulocytosis possibly caused by ranitidine in a patient with renal failure. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 2002;40(11):520-3.
  33. Kumar A. Cimetidine: an immunomodulator. DICP 1990;24(3):289-95.
  34. Potter HP Jr, Byrne EB, Lebovitz S. Fever after cimetidine and ranitidine. J Clin Gastroenterol 1986;8 : 275-6.
  35. Cantú TG, Korek JS. Central nervous system reactions to histamine-2 receptor blockers. Ann Intern Med 1991;114(12):1027-34.
  36. Fisher AA, Le Couteur DG. Nephrotoxicity and hepatotoxicity of histamine H2 receptor antagonists. Drug Saf 2001;24(1):39-57.
  37. Smallwood RA, Berlin RG, Castagnoli N, Festen HP, Hawkey CJ, Lam SK, et al. Safety of acid-suppressing drugs. Dig Dis Sci 1995;40:63S-80S.
  38. Chiba N, De Gara CJ, Wilkinson JM, Hunt RH. Speed of healing and symptom relief in grade II to IV gastroesophageal reflux disease: a meta-analysis. Gastroenterology 1997;112(6):1798-810.
  39. Kahrilas PJ, Howden CW, Hughes N. Response of regurgitation to proton pump inhibitor therapy in clinical trials of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2011;106(8):1419-25.
  40. Sigterman KE, van Pinxteren B, Bonis PA, Lau J, Numans ME. Short-term treatment with proton pump inhibitors, H2-receptor antagonists and prokinetics for gastro-oesophageal reflux disease-like symptoms and endoscopy negative reflux disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013 ;5:CD002095.
  41. Chiba N. Proton pump inhibitors in acute healing and maintenance of erosive or worse esophagitis: a systematic overview. Can J Gastroenterol 1997;11:66B-73B.
  42. Wang WH, Huang JQ, Zheng GF, Xia HH, Wong WM, Lam SK, et al. Head-to-head comparison of H2-receptor antagonists and proton pump inhibitors in the treatment of erosive esophagitis: a meta-analysis. World J Gastroenterol 2005;11(26):4067-77.
  43. Johnsson F, Hatlebakk JG, Klintenberg AC, Roman J. Symptom-relieving effect of esomeprazole 40 mg daily in patients with heartburn. Scand J Gastroenterol 2003;38:347-353.
  44. Fass R, Murthy U, Hayden CW, Malagon IB, Pulliam G, Wendel C, et al. Omeprazole 40 mg once a day is equally effective as lansoprazole 30 mg twice a day in symptom control of patients with gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GERD) who are resistant to conventional- dose lansoprazole therapy – a prospective, randomized, multi-centre study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2000;14:1595-1603.
  45. Fass R, Sifrim D. Management of heartburn not responding to proton pump inhibitors. Gut 2009;58(2):295-309.
  46. Reimer C, Sondergaard B, Hilsted L, Bytzer P. Proton-pump inhibitor therapy induces acid-related symptoms in healthy volunteers after withdrawal of therapy. Gastroenterology 2009;137:80-87.
  47. Fossmark R, Johnsen G, Johanessen E, Waldum HL. Rebound acid hypersecretion after long-term inhibition of gastric secretion. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005;21:149-154.
  48. Klinkenberg-Knol EC, Nelis F, Dent J, Snel P, Mitchell B, Prichard P, et al. Long-term omeprazole treatment in resistant gastroesophageal reflux disease: efficacy, safety, and influence on gastric mucosa. Gastroenterology 2000;118:661-669.
  49. Geboes K, Dekker W, Mulder CJ, Nusteling K; Dutch Study Group. Long-term lansoprazole treatment for gastro-oesophageal reflux disease: clinical efficacy and influence on gastric mucosa. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2001;15:1819-1826.
  50. Dial S, Alrasadi K, Manoukian C, Huang A, Menzies D. Risk of Clostridium difficile diarrhea among hospital inpatients prescribed proton pump inhibitors: cohort and case-control studies. CMAJ 2004;171:33-38.
  51. Choudhry MN, Soran H, Ziglam HM. Overuse and inappropriate prescribing of proton pump inhibitors in patients with Clostridium difficile-associated disease. QJM 2008;101:445-448.
  52. Herzig SJ, Howell MD, Ngo LH, Marcantonio ER. Acid-suppressive medication use and the risk for hospital-acquired pneumonia. JAMA 2009;301:2120-2128.
  53. Eurich DT1, Sadowski CA, Simpson SH, Marrie TJ, Majumdar SR. Recurrent community-acquired pneumonia in patients starting acid-suppressing drugs. Am J Med 2010;123:47-53.
  54. Corley DA, Kubo A, Zhao W, Quesenberry C. Proton pump inhibitors and histamine-2 receptor antagonists are associated with hip fractures among at-risk patients. Gastroenterology 2010;139:93-101.
  55. Richter JE. H pylori: the bug is not all bad. Gut 2001;49:319-320.
  56. Koike T, Ohara S, Sekine H, Iijima K, Abe Y, Kato K, et al. Helicobacter pylori infection prevents erosive reflux oesophagitis by decreasing gastric acid secretion. Gut 2001;49:330-334.
  57. Vicari JJ, Peek RM, Falk GW, Goldblum JR, Easley KA, Schnell J, et al. The seroprevalence of cagA-positive Helicobacter pylori strains in the spectrum of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterology 1998;115:50-57.
  58. Katz PO, Gerson LB, Vela MF. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2013;108(3):308-28.
  59. Peura DA, Freston JW, Haber MM, Kovacs TO, Hunt B, Atkinson S. Lansoprazole for long-term maintenance therapy of erosive esophagitis: double-blind comparison with ranitidine. Dig Dis Sci 2009;54(5):955-63.
  60. Vigneri S, Termini R, Leandro G, Badalamenti S, Pantalena M, Savarino V, et al. A comparison of five maintenance therapies for reflux esophagitis. N Engl J Med 1995;333(17):1106-10.
  61. Schindlbeck NE, Klauser AG, Berghammer G, Londong W, Müller-Lissner SA. Three year follow up of patients with gastrooesophageal reflux disease. Gut 1992;33(8):1016-9.
  62. Hegar B, Vandenplas Y. Gastroesophageal reflux: natural evolution, diagnostic approach and treatment. Turk J Pediatr 2013;55(1):1-7.
  63. Dent J, Yeomans ND, Mackinnon M, Reed W, Narielvala FM, Hetzel DJ, et al. Omeprazole vs ranitidine for prevention of relapse in reflux oesophagitis. A controlled double blind trial of their efficacy and safety. Gut 1994;35(5):590-8.
  64. Robinson M, Lanza F, Avner D, Haber M. Effective maintenance treatment of reflux esophagitis with low-dose lansoprazole. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1996;124(10):859-67.
  65. Tsai HH, Chapman R, Shepherd A, McKeith D, Anderson M, Vearer D, et al. Esomeprazole 20 mg on-demand is more acceptable to patients than continuous lansoprazole 15 mg in the long-term maintenance of endoscopy-negative gastro-oesophageal reflux patients: the COMMAND Study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2004 ;20(6):657-65.
  66. Hodgkinson R, Glassenberg R, Joyce TH 3rd, Coombs DW, Ostheimer GW, Gibbs CP. Comparison of cimetidine (Tagamet) with antacid for safety and effectiveness in reducing gastric acidity before elective cesarean section. Anesthesiology. 1983 Aug;59(2):86-90.
  67. Witter FR, King TM, Blake DA. The effects of chronic gastrointestinal medication on the fetus and neonate. Obstet Gynecol 1981;58:79S-84S.
  68. Larson JD, Patatanian E, Miner PB Jr, Rayburn WF, Robinson MG. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of ranitidine for gastroesophageal reflux symptoms during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1997;90(1):83-7.
  69. Gill SK, O'Brien L, Einarson TR, Koren G. The safety of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) in pregnancy: a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2009;104(6):1541-5.
  70. Pasternak B, Hviid A. Use of proton-pump inhibitors in early pregnancy and the risk of birth defects. N Engl J Med 2010 ;363(22):2114-23.
  71. Lalkin A, Loebstein R, Addis A, Ramezani-Namin F, Mastroiacovo P, Mazzone T, et al. The safety of omeprazole during pregnancy: a multicenter prospective controlled study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:727-30.
  72. Ruigomez A, Garcia Rodriguez LA, Cattaruzzi C, Troncon MG, Agostinis L, Wallander MA, et al. Use of cimetidine, omeprazole, and ranitidine in pregnant women and pregnancy outcomes. Am J Epidemiol 1999;150(5):476-81.
  73. Diav-Citrin O, Arnon J, Shechtman S, Schaefer C, van Tonningen MR, Clementi M, et al. The safety of proton pump inhibitors in pregnancy: a multicentre prospective controlled study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005 ;21(3):269-75.
  74. Kahrilas PJ, Shaheen NJ, Vaezi MF. American Gastroenterological Association Institute technical review on the management of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterology 2008;135(4):1392-1413.
  75. Hetzel DJ, Dent J, Reed WD, Narielvala FM, Mackinnon M, McCarthy JH, et al. Healing and relapse of severe peptic esophagitis after treatment with omeprazole. Gastroenterology1988 ;95(4):903-12.
  76. Inadomi JM, McIntyre L, Bernard L, Fendrick AM. Step-down from multiple- to single-dose proton pump inhibitors (PPIs): a prospective study of patients with heartburn or acid regurgitation completely relieved with PPIs. Am J Gastroenterol 2003 ;98(9):1940-4.
  77. Carlsson R, Dent J, Watts R, Riley S, Sheikh R, Hatlebakk J, et al. Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in primary care: an international study of different treatment strategies with omeprazole. International GORD Study Group. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1998;10(2):119-24.
  78. Watson RG, Tham TC, Johnston BT, McDougall NI. Double blind cross-over placebo controlled study of omeprazole in the treatment of patients with reflux symptoms and physiological levels of acid reflux--the "sensitive oesophagus". Gut 1997;40(5):587-90.
  79. Hatlebakk JG, Katz PO, Kuo B, Castell DO. Nocturnal gastric acidity and acid breakthrough on different regimens of omeprazole 40 mg daily. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1998;12(12):1235-40.
  80. Fackler WK, Ours TM, Vaezi MF, Richter JE. Long-term effect of H2RA therapy on nocturnal gastric acid breakthrough. Gastroenterology 2002;122(3):625-32.
  81. Rackoff A, Agrawal A, Hila A, Mainie I, Tutuian R, Castell DO. Histamine-2 receptor antagonists at night improve gastroesophageal reflux disease symptoms for patients on proton pump inhibitor therapy. Dis Esophagus 2005;18(6):370-3.
  82. Lidums I1, Lehmann A, Checklin H, Dent J, Holloway RH. Control of transient lower esophageal sphincter relaxations and reflux by the GABA(B) agonist baclofen in normal subjects. Gastroenterology 2000;118(1):7-13.
  83. Zhang Q, Lehmann A, Rigda R, Dent J, Holloway RH. Control of transient lower oesophageal sphincter relaxations and reflux by the GABA(B) agonist baclofen in patients with gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. Gut 2002;50(1):19-24.
  84. Omari TI, Benninga MA, Sansom L, Butler RN, Dent J, Davidson GP. Effect of baclofen on esophagogastric motility and gastroesophageal reflux in children with gastroesophageal reflux disease: a randomized controlled trial. J Pediatr 2006;149(4):468-74.
  85. Vela MF, Tutuian R, Katz PO, Castell DO. Baclofen decreases acid and non-acid post-prandial gastro-oesophageal reflux measured by combined multichannel intraluminal impedance and pH. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2003;17(2):243-51.
  86. Koek GH, Sifrim D, Lerut T, Janssens J, Tack J. Effect of the GABA(B) agonist baclofen in patients with symptoms and duodeno-gastro-oesophageal reflux refractory to proton pump inhibitors. Gut 2003;52(10):1397-402.
  87. Cossentino MJ, Mann K, Armbruster SP, Lake JM, Maydonovitch C, Wong RK. Randomized clinical trial: the effect of baclofen in patients with gastro-oesophageal reflux - a randomised prospective study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2012;35(9):1036-44.
  88. Boeckxstaens GE, Beaumont H, Hatlebakk JG, Silberg DG, Björck K, Karlsson M, et al. A novel reflux inhibitor lesogaberan (AZD3355) as add-on treatment in patients with GORD with persistent reflux symptoms despite proton pump inhibitor therapy: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Gut 2011;60(9):1182-8.
  89. Fass R, Shapiro M, Dekel R, Sewell J. Systematic review: proton-pump inhibitor failure in gastro-oesophageal reflux disease--where next? Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005;22(2):79-94.
  90. Clouse RE, Lustman PJ, Eckert TC, Ferney DM, Griffith LS. Low-dose trazodone for symptomatic patients with esophageal contraction abnormalities. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Gastroenterology 1987;92(4):1027-36.
  91. Handa M, Mine K, Yamamoto H, Hayashi H, Tsuchida O, Kanazawa F, et al. Antidepressant treatment of patients with diffuse esophageal spasm: a psychosomatic approach. J Clin Gastroenterol 1999;28(3):228-32.
  92. Lundell L, Miettinen P, Myrvold HE, Hatlebakk JG, Wallin L, Malm A, et al. Seven-year follow-up of a randomized clinical trial comparing proton-pump inhibition with surgical therapy for reflux oesophagitis. Br J Surg 2007; 94:198–203.
  93. Dickman R, Schiff E, Holland A, Wright C, Sarela SR, Han B, et al. Clinical trial: acupuncture vs. doubling the proton pump inhibitor dose in refractory heartburn. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2007;26(10):1333-44.
  94. Nojkov B, Rubenstein JH, Adlis SA, Shaw MJ, Saad R, Rai J, et al. The influence of co-morbid IBS and psychological distress on outcomes and quality of life following PPI therapy in patients with gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2008;27(6):473-82.
  95. Mizyed I, Fass SS, Fass R. Review article: gastro-oesophageal reflux disease and psychological comorbidity. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2009;29(4):351-8.
  96. Jafri SM, Arora G, Triadafilopoulos G. What is left of the endoscopic antireflux devices? Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2009;25(4):352-7.