Medicinal Plants for Joint Pain in Traditional Persian Medicine

Document Type : Review Article

Authors

1 Pharmaceutical Science Research Center, School of Pharmacy. Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, IR Iran.

2 Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, School of Pharmacy. Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, IR Iran.

3 Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy. Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, IR Iran.

4 Department of Phytopharmaceuticals (Traditional Pharmacy) , School of Pharmacy. Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, IR Iran.

Abstract

Joint pains can be resulted by many factors of which osteoarthritis (OA) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) are the most popular ones. Treatment of both conditions usually involves pain killers. Chronic joint pains are associated with a high usage of herbal medicines. Herbal remedies are the main part of many traditional medical schools specially Traditional Persian Medicine. This study is conducted to present herbal remedies for joint pain from important treatises of Traditional Persian Medicine. Five manuscripts of the most comprehensive pharmacopeias in TPM which cover more than 900 years of golden ages and also commonly used by natural healers were used. Totally more than 120 medicinal herbs were mentioned for joint pain in those treatises, but 105 herbs from 59 different families were identified. This list of traditional herbal medicines, some of which were used for 1000 years for joint pain, this perennial problem, can provide a basis for further studies and therefore finding more effective drugs to help solving more problems in this area.

Keywords

References

  1. Wambugua S. N., Mathiua P. M., Gakuyab D. W., Kanuia T. I., Kabasac J. D., G. KS. Medicinal plants used in the management of chronic joint pains in Machakos and Makueni counties, Kenya. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2011;137:945- 55.
  2. Parmet S LC, Glass RM. Osteoarthritis of the Knee. J Am Med Assoc. 2003;289(8):1068.
  3. Arden N. Osteoarthritis: Epidemiology. Best Practice & Research Clinical Rheumatology. 2006;20(1):3-25.
  4. Hugh A., Gemmell, Bert H., Jacobson, Brad M., Hayes. Effect of a topical herbal cream on osteoarthritis of the hand and knee: a pilot srudy. ournal of manipulative and physiological therapeutics. 2003;26(5).
  5. Gabriel S. E. The epidemiology of rheumatoid arthritis. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 2001;27(2):269-81.
  6. Alarcon G. Epidemiology of rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatic Diseases Clinics of North America. 1995;21:589-604.
  7. Stanos S. P. Topical Agents for the Management of Musculoskeletal Pain. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management. 2007;33( 3):342-55.
  8. Argoff C. E. Topical Analgesics in the Management of Acute and Chronic Pain. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2013;88(2):195-20.
  9. Astin J. A. Why patients use alternative medicine:Results of a national study. JAMA. 1998; 279:1548-53.
  10. Resch L., Hill S., Ernest E. Use of complementary therapies by individuals with arthritis. Clinical Rheumatology. 1997;16:391-5.
  11. Setty A., Sigal L. Herbal medications commonly used in the practice of rheumatology: mechanisms of action, efficacy and side effects. Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2005;34:773-84.
  12. Adams M., Berset C., Kessler M., Hamburger M. Medicinal herbs for the treatment of rheumatic disorders-A survey of European herbals from the 16th and 17th century. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2009;121(3):343-59.
  13. Al-rhazes (Rhazes) M., editor. Al Havi (Liber Continent). Tehran: Academy of Medical Sciences Publication; 2005.
  14. Avicenna., editor. Canon Fi Tibb (Canon of Medicine). New Delhi: Jamia Hamdard Printing Press; 1988.
  15. Heravi A. M. Alabnie an Haghaegh ol Advieh. Tehran Iran: Tehran University Press; 1992.
  16. Ansari Shirazi Z. A. Ekhtiyarat-e-Badiyee. Mir rbMT, editor. Tehran: Pakhsh Razi Press; 1992.
  17. Aghili Shirazi S.M.H.I.M.H. Makhzan ol Advieh. Tehran: Intisharat va Amoozesh enghelab Islami Press; 1992.
  18. Biruni A. R. Seydaneh fi Teb. Mozaffarzadeh PtbB, editor. Tehran: Iranian Academy of Persian Language and Literature Press; 2004.
  19. Hooper D., Field H. Useful plants and drugs of Iran and Iraq. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History; 1937.
  20. Dymook W., Warden C. J., Hooper D. Pharmacographica Indica. London: Kegan Paul;; 1893.
  21. Muthuraman A., Singh N., Singh Jaggi A. Protective effect of Acorus calamus L. in rat model of vincristine induced painful neuropathy: An evidence of anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative activity. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2011;49(10):2557-63.
  22. Almeida R.N., Almeida R.N., Navarro D.S., Barbosa-Filho J.M. Plants with central analgesic activity. Phytomedicine. 2001;8(4):310-22.
  23. Garg V. R., Jain M., Sharma P. K., Garg G. Anti-infl ammatory activity of spinacia oleracea. Int J Pharma Prof Res. 2010;1:1-4.
  24. Atta A. H., Alkofahi A. Anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of some Jordanian medicinal plant extracts. J Ethnopharmacol 1998;60:117-24.
  25. Çakici I., Ulug H. Y., Inci S., Tunçtan B., Abacioglu N., Kanzik I., et al. Antinociceptive effect of some Amaryllidaceae plants in mice. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1997;49:828-30.
  26. Maxia A., Sanna C., Frau M. A., Piras A., Karchuli M. S., Kasture V. Anti-inflammatory activity of Pistacia lentiscus essential oil: involvement of IL-6 and TNF-alpha. Nat Prod Commun. 2011;6(10):1543-4.
  27. Mahmoudi M., Ebrahimzadeh M. A., Nabavi S. F., Hafezi S., Nabavi S. M., Eslami Sh. Antiinflammatory and antioxidant activities of gum mastic. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2010;14:765-9
  28. El-Sawy E.R., Ebaid M.S., Abo-Salem H.M., Al-Sehemi A.G., Mandour A.H. Synthesis, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and anticonvulsant activities of some new 4,6-dimethoxy-5-(heterocycles)benzofuran starting from naturally occurring visnagin. Arabian Journal of Chemistry. In Press.
  29. Naseri M., Mojab F., Khodadoost M., Kamalinejad M., Davati A., Choopani R., et al. The Study of Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Oil-Based Dilln(Anethum graveolens L.) Extract Used Topically innFormalin-Induced Inflammation Male Rat Paw
  30. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 2012;11(4):1169-74.
  31. Bakhtiarian A., Rezai-Asl M., Sabour M., Nikoui V., Ghamami G., Yadavar-Nikravesh M. S., et al. The study of analgesic effects of hydroalcoholic extract of seed and crops of Anethum graveolens. Toxicology Letters. 2012;211.
  32. Iranshahy M., Iranshahi M. Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of asafetida (Ferula assa-foetida oleo-gum-resin). Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2011;134:1-10.
  33. Shahverdi A.R., Saadat F., Khorramizadeh M. R., Iranshahi M., Khoshayand M. R. Two matrix metalloproteinases inhibitors from Ferula persica var. persica. Phytomedicine. 2006;13:712-7.
  34. Erdemoglu N., Küpeli E., Yeşilada E. Anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activity assessment of plants used as remedy in Turkish folk medicine. J Ethnopharmacol 2003;89:123-9.
  35. Bae E. A., Yoo Y. I., Lee I. A., Joo Han M., Kim D. H. The anti-inflammmatory effect of fermented red ginseng in experimental colitic mice. Food Agr Immunol. 2008;19:313-23.
  36. Choi S. S., Han E. J., Han K. J., Lee H. K., Suh H. W. Antinociceptive Effects of Ginsenosides Injected Intracerebroventricularly or Intrathecally in Substance P-Induced Pain Model. Planta Med. 2003;69:1001-4.
  37. Fayyaz A., Rafeeq A. K., Ibrahim H. Study of analgesic and antiinflammatory activity from plant extracts of lactuca scarriola and artemisia absinthium. J Islam Acad Sci. 1992;5:111-4.
  38. Núñez Figueredo Y., Montero Alarcon C., Agüero Fernandez S., Muñoz Cernuda A. Preclinical anti-inflammatory effects of dry powder of Calendula officinalis. Efecto antiinflamatorio preclinico del polvo seco de Calendula officinalis. Lat Am J Pharm. 2007;26:548-52.
  39. Ahmad S., Qureshi S., Atiqur R., Zakirur R., Badar Y. Antipyretic and analgesic activity in crude ethanolic extract of Calendula officinalis Linn. Pak J Sci Ind Res. 2000;43:50-4.
  40. Cavin C., Delannoy M., Malnoe A., Debefve E., Touche A., Courtois D., et al. Inhibition of the expression and activity of cyclooxygenase-2 by chicory extract. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2005;327:742-9.
  41. Wesolowska A., Nikiforuk A., Michalska K., Kisiel W., Chojnacka-Wojcik E. Analgesic and sedative activities of lactucin and some lactucin-like guaianolides in mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;107:254-8.
  42. Wu Y., Xu Y., Yao L. Anti-inflammatory and Anti-allergic Effects of German Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.). Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants. 2011;14(5).
  43. Heidari M. R., Asadipour A., Ghayoor. Evaluation of Analgesic and Ulcerogenic Effects of Methanolic Extract of Matricaria chamomilla L. J Qazvin Univ Med Sci. 2003;20:15-23.
  44. Bonjardim L. R., da Silva A. P., Gameiro G. H., Tambeli C. H., Ferraz de Arruda Veiga M. C. Nociceptive behavior induced by mustard oil injection into the temporomandibular joint is blocked by a peripheral non-opioid analgesic and a central opioid analgesic. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2009;91:321-6.
  45. Lin J. Y., Li C.Y., Hwang I. F. Characterisation of the pigment components in red cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var.) juice and their anti-inflammatory effects on LPS-stimulated murine splenocytes. Food Chem. 2008;109:771-81.
  46. Su Sh., Hua Y., Wang Y., Gu W., Zhou W., Duan J., et al. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of individual and combined extracts from Commiphora myrrha, and Boswellia carterii. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2012;139(2):649-56.
  47. Tipton D. A., Lyle B., Babich H., Dabbous M. In vitro cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory effects of myrrh oil on human gingival fibroblasts and epithelial cells. Toxicol In Vitro. 2003;17:301-10.
  48. al-Said M. S., Abdelsattar E. A., Khalifa S. I., el-Feraly F. S. Isolation and identification of an anti-inflammatory principle from Capparis spinosa. Pharmazie. 1988;43:640-1.
  49. Panico A. M., Cardile V., Garufi F., Puglia C., Bonina F., Ronsisvalle G. Protective effect of Capparis spinosa on chondrocytes. Life Sci. 2005;77:2479-88.
  50. Sireeratawong S., Jaijoy K., Panunto W., Soonthornchareonnon N. Anti-inflammatory activity and toxicity of the water extract of Terminalia chebula rezt in rats. Planta Med. 2012; 78 112.
  51. Kaur S., Jaggi R. K. Antinociceptive activity of chronic administration of different extracts of Terminalia bellerica Roxb. and Terminalia chebula Retz. fruits. Indian J Exp Biol. 2010;48:925-30.
  52. Blazovics A., Lugasi A., Szentmihalyi K., Kery Á. Reducing power of the natural polyphenols of Sempervivum tectorum in vitro and in vivo. Act Biol Szeg. 2003;47:99-102.
  53. Kekesi G., Dobos I., Benedek G., Horvath G. Antinociceptive Activity of Sempervivum tectorum L. Extract in Rats. Phytother Res. 2003;17:1032-6.
  54. Yesilada E., Tanaka S., Sezik E., Tabata M. Isolation of an anti-inflammatory principle from the fruit juice of Ecballium elaterium. J Nat Prod. 1988;51:504-8.
  55. Agil M. A., Risco S., Miro M., Navarro M. C., Ocete M. A., Jimenez J. Analgesic and antipyretic effects of Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Richard. Extract in rodents. Phytother Res. 1995;9(135-138).
  56. Marzouk B., Marzouk Z., Haloui E., Fenina N., Bouraoui A., Aouni M. Screening of analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of Citrullus colocynthis from southern Tunisia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;128:15-9.
  57. Ahmadiani A., Hosseiny J., Semnanian S., Javan M., Saeedi F., Kamalinejad M., et al. Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of Elaeagnus angustifolia fruit extract. J Ethnopharmacol. 2000; 72:287-92.
  58. Ilavarasan R., Mallika M., Venkataraman S. Anti-inflammatory and free radical scavenging activity of Ricinus communis root extract. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;103:478-80.
  59. Vieira C., Fetzer S., Sauer S. K., Evangelista S., Averbeck B., Kress M., et al. Pro- and anti-inflammatory actions of ricinoleic acid: similarities and differences with capsaicin. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2001;364:87-95.
  60. Shaker E., Mahmoud H., Mnaa S. Anti-inflammatory and anti-ulcer activity of the extract from Alhagi maurorum (camelthorn). Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2010;48(10):2785-90.
  61. Bhakta T., Mukherjee P. K., Saha K., Pal M., Saha B. P., Mandal S. C. Evaluation of anti-inflammatory effects of Cassia fistula (Leguminosae) leaf extract on rats. Journal of Herbs , Spices and Medicinal Plants. 1999;6:67-72.
  62. Patwardhan S., Sakhare G., Singhai A. K., Jain K., Somani R. Evaluation of analgesic activity of Cassia fistula on albino mice. Pharmacologyonline. 2009;2:887-93
  63. Saravana Kumar A., Gandhimathi R., Mohana Lakshmi S., Rahul N., Ashok Kumar C. K. Evaluation of the antinociceptive properties from Indigofera tinctoria leaves extracts. J Pharm Sci & Res. 2009;1:31-7.
  64. Berkan T., Ustünes L., Lermioglu F., Ozer A. Antiinflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic effects of an aqueous extract of Erythraea centaurium. Planta Med. 1991;57:34-7.
  65. Papoutsi Z., Kassi E., Chinou ., Halabalaki M., Skaltsounis L. A., Moutsatsou P. Walnut extract (Juglans regia L.) and its component ellagic acid exhibit anti-inflammatory activity in human aorta endothelial cells and osteoblastic activity in the cell line KS483. Br J Nutr. 2008;99:715-22.
  66. Lin J.T., Chen Y. C., Lee Y. C., Rolis Hou C. W., Chen F. L., Yang D. J. Antioxidant, anti-proliferative and cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitory activities of ethanolic extracts from lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) leaves. Food Science and Technology. 2012;49(1):1-7.
  67. Guginski G., Luiz A. P., Silva M. D., Massaro M., Martins D. F., Chaves J., et al. Mechanisms involved in the antinociception caused by ethanolic extract obtained from the leaves of Melissa officinalis (lemon balm) in mice. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior. 2009;93(1):10-6.
  68. Tariq M., Ageel A. M., al-Yahya M. A., Mossa J. S., al-Said M. S. Anti-inflammatory activity of Teucrium polium. Int J Tissue React. 1989;11(4):185-8.
  69. Baluchnejadmojarad T., Roghani M., Roghani-Dehkordi F. Antinociceptive effect of Teucrium polium leaf extract in the diabetic rat formalin test. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97:207-10.
  70. Hosseinzadeh H., Ramezani M., Salman G. A. Antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory and acute toxicity effects of Zataria multiflora Boiss extracts in mice and rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2000;73( 3):379-85.
  71. Sayyah M., Saroukhani G., Peirovi A., Kamalinejad M. Analgesic and anti-infl ammatory activity of the leaf essential oil of Laurus nobilis Linn. Phytother Res. 2003;17:733-6.
  72. Deraniyagala S.A, Ratnasooriya W.D, Goonasekara C.L. Antinociceptive effect and toxicological study of the aqueous bark extract of Barringtonia racemosa on rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2003;86(1):21-6.
  73. Hodge G., Hodge S., Han P. Allium sativum (garlic) suppresses leukocyte inflammatory cytokine production in vitro: potential therapeutic use in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Cytometry. 2002;48:209-15.
  74. Hyun S. H., Kim M. B., Lim S. B. Physiological activities of garlic extracts from Daejeong Jeju and major cultivating areas in Korea. Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition. 2008;37:1542-7.
  75. Chandrasekaran A. N., Porkodi R. Thiocolchicoside an anti-infl ammatory analgesic agent with muscle relaxant action. J Indian Rheum Assoc. 1994;2:137-9.
  76. Vazquez B., Avila G., Segura D., Escalante B. Antiinflammatory activity of extracts from Aloe vera gel. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1996; 55(1):69-75.
  77. Shahraki M. R., Mirshikari H. The Anti-Nociceptive effect of Aloe vera aqueous extract in fructose-fed male rats. Basic Clin Neurosci 2010;1:39-43.
  78. Dupasquier C. M., Dibrov E., Kneesh A. L., Cheung P. K., Lee K. G., Alexander H. K., et al. Dietary flaxseed inhibits atherosclerosis in the LDL receptor-deficient mouse in part through antiproliferative and anti-inflammatory actions. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2007;293:2394-402.
  79. Ahmad F., Khan R. A., Rashid S. Pharmacological evaluation of medicinal plants for their analgesic activity in mice. Med J Islam Repub Iran. 1996;10:149-52.
  80. Chen J., Wang X., Qu Y., Chen Zh., Cai H., Liu X., et al. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity and pharmacokinetics of alkaloids from seeds of Strychnos nux-vomica after transdermal administration: Effect of changes in alkaloid composition. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2012;139(1):181-8.
  81. Ali B. H., Bashir A. K., Tanira M. O. Anti-infl ammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic effects of Lawsonia inermis L. (henna) in rats. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior. 1995;51:356-63.
  82. Koley K.M., Lal J., Tandan S.K. Anti-inflammatory activity of Azadirachta indica (neem) leaves. Fitoterapia. 1994;65:524-8.
  83. Patel J. P., Hemavathi K. G., Bhatt J. D. Study of the antinociceptive effect of neem leaf extract and its interaction with morphine in mice. Indian J Pharmacol. 2005;37:37-8.
  84. Ali H., Monga J., Gupta L., Singh A., Narayan S., Siddiqui Z. A., et al. Anti-inflammatory effects of hydro-methanolic extract of Ficus carica. Biomedical and Pharmacology Journal
  85. ; 2:129-32.
  86. Hosseinzadeh H., Khoshdel M., Ghorbani M. Antinociceptive, Anti-inflammatory Effects and Acute Toxicity of Aqueous and Ethanolic Extracts of Myrtus communis L. Aerial Parts in Mice. Journal of Acupuncture and Meridian Studies. 2011;4(4):242-7.
  87. Süntar I., Tumen I., Ustün O., Keleş H., Küpeli Akko E. Appraisal on the wound healing and anti-inflammatory activities of the essential oils obtained from the cones and needles of Pinus species by in vivo and in vitro experimental models. Journal of Ethnopharmacology.139(2):533-40.
  88. Devan P., Bani S., Suri K.A., Satti N.K., Qazi G.N. Immunomodulation exhibited by piperinic acid through suppression of proinflammatory cytokines. Int Immunopharmacol. 2007;7:889-99.
  89. Park J.E., Choi H.J., Jung S.H., Kim N.J., Kim D.H. Analgesic and antiinflammatory activities of some oriental herbal medicines. Kor J Pharmacog. 2001;32:257-68.
  90. Rodriguez-Cabezas M.E., Galvez J., Camuesco D., Lorente M.D., Concha A., Martinez-Augustin O., et al. Intestinal anti-inflammatory activity of dietary fiber (Plantago ovata seeds) in HLA-B27 transgenic rats. Clin Nutr. 2003;22:463-71.
  91. Haider S., Nazreen S., Mahboob Alam M., Hamid H., Sarwar Alam M. Anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities of Platanus orientalis Linn. and its ulcerogenic risk evaluation. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2012;143(1):236-40.
  92. Almeida R. N., Navarro D. S., Barbosa-Filho J. M. Plants with central analgesic activity. Phytomedicine. 2001 8(4):310-22.
  93. Chehl N., Chipitsyna G., Gong Q., Yeo C. J., Arafat H. A. Anti-inflammatory effects of the Nigella sativa seed extract, thymoquinone, in pancreatic cancer cells. HPB (Oxford). 2009;11(5):373-81.
  94. Bashir M.U., Qureshi H.J. Analgesic effect of Nigella sativa seeds extract on experimentally induced pain in albino mice. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak
  95. ;20:464-7.
  96. Shams K. A., Schmidt R. Lipid fraction constituents and evaluation of anti-anaphylactic activity of Prunus mahaleb L. kernels. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2007;4:289-93.
  97. Rakhshandeh H., Vahdati-Mashhadian N., Dolati K., Hosseini M. Antinociceptive effect of Rosa damascena in mice. J Biol Sci. 2008;8:176-80.
  98. Chan Y. Y., Li C. H., Shen Y.C., Wu T. S. Anti-inflammatory principles from the stem and root barks of Citrus medica. Chem Pharm Bull. 2010;58:61-5.
  99. Sood S., Bansal S., Muthuraman A., Gill N.S., Bali M. Therapeutic potential of citrus medica L. peel extract in carrageenan induced inflammatory pain in rat. Res J Med Plant. 2009;3:123-33.
  100. Sarrell E. M., Mandelberg A., Cohen H. A. Efficacy of naturopathic extracts in the management of ear pain associated with acute otitis media. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2001;155:796-9.
  101. Sarrell E. M., Cohen H. A., Kahan E. Naturopathic treatment for ear pain in children. Pediatrics. 2003;111:574-9.
  102. Wannang N. N., Anuka J. A., Kwanashie H. O., Gyang S. S., Auta A. Analgesic and anti-fl ammatory activities of the aqueous leaf extract of solanum nigrum Linn (solanaceae) in rats. Niger J Pharm Res. 2006;5:74-9.
  103. Kaileh M., Berghe W. V., Boone E., Essawi T., Haegeman G. Screening of indigenous Palestinian medicinal plants for potential anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activity. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;113:510-6.
  104. Sharma M. C., Sharma S., Kohli D. V. Formulation and evaluation of analgesic activity, anti-inflammatory and anti-anxiety activity of using plant extracts. Digest Journal of Nanomaterials and Biostructures. 2010;5:147-51.
  105. Schuhbaum H., Bürgermeister J., Paper D. H., Franz G. Anti-inflammatory activity of Zingiber officinale extracts. Pharmaceut Pharmacol Lett. 2000;10:82-5.
  106. Black C. D., Herring M. P., Hurley D. J., O'Connor P. J. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) Reduces Muscle Pain Caused by Eccentric Exercise. J Pain. 2010.
  107. Farouk L., Laroubi A., Aboufatima R., Benharref A., Chait A. Evaluation of the analgesic effect of alkaloid extract of Peganum harmala L.: possible mechanisms involved. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;115:449-54.

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics